Family Abuse

Child abuse is evident in society on a variety of levelsthan the individual who has a 'normal' personality, but
ranging from verbal to physical, neglect tothis is not an explanation for offending in such a
maltreatment, and emotional to sexualmanner. These theories do not take into
abuse. The help that is available for abusedaccount a person's social upbringing and ignores the
children is growing as the population realises theperson's childhood influences. "Perpetrators
extent of the abuse throughout society. Butof abuse report less social support from parents,
what of the help that is available for theadults, siblings, and peers during childhood". (Milner &
abusers? To understand the help needed forCrouch,1993,p39). This social support could
the abusers there is a need to understand why theybe a crucial link to a person committing child abuse
commit such an offence in the first place. Tooffences as an adult.
do this we need to study the characteristics of theÂ
abuser and possible explanations behind theirThis leads into another perspective of explanations
behaviour. Theories and studies on thefor child abuse. Socialization theories are also
subject have been grouped into three mainrecognised as a possible explanation for a person to
categories which characterise the abuser, these beingcommit child abuse. Such studies try to
biological/psychological perspectives, socializationprove that aggression and behaviour is learned
cultural theories, and feminist theories. Wethrough past experiences. Socialization
also need to understand what child abuse is and whytheories go against the previous perspective in saying
some of its subtleties are so hard for society as athat "people are not born with the ability to act
whole to grasp. The types of violenceviolently; rather they learn to be aggressive through
looked at in all violent cases have also been dividedlife experiences" (Module 4, p14). Â
into two categories. These are InstrumentalChild abuse may be a part of the abuser's past, in
violence and Expressive violence. These willtheir family and environment and the behaviour may
briefly be looked at to try and understand thebe passed on to the next generation. "As
perpetrator in child abuse.early as 1975, reports appeared indicating that
Âchildren whose parents engaged in physical violence
Studies available on the explanations for child abusewere also likely to be victims of physical
are limited as no single factor can explain the actionsmaltreatment" (Appel & Holden,1998,p1).Â
of such an individual. The definition of childCertainly the environment and family life influences a
abuse as given by the online dictionary is "theperson as to how they grow up but again, there is
physical or emotional or sexual maltreatment ofno clear path stating this to be the reason for a
children". The main issue with any definitionperson to commit child abuse. Not every
of child abuse, as with this definition, is that thechild who has been brought up in a negative social
people in society have differing views on what childenvironment is going to be child abusers and there is
abuse is. "The nature of the problem of childno study to support such a claim. Â
abuse understandably creates divisions amongÂ
different disciplines, services, professionals, victims,Â
parents, and individuals alike"Also included in a person's social background is the
(Thomlison,1990). No single explanation caninfluence of their cultural environment.Â
cover everyone's perception of child abuse asDifferent cultures in society have sometimes
everyone has a different perspective as to whatconflicting views of what child abuse is. "For
child abuse is. Discipline to one family may becenturies, prevailing norms in many cultures have
seen as child abuse to another.considered severe physical punishment as necessary
Âfor maintaining discipline; transmitting educational,
Statistics of child abuse are unreliable and at bestcultural, moral and religious ideas..." (Jackson, et
gives us the minimum amount of abuseal,1991,p3). Pacific Islanders and Maori are
occurring. The 'dark figure' - those casesover represented in child abuse cases. In a
that are unreported to officials, is evident in childNew Zealand study by Christopher Clark (2001) it
abuse as it is in all crime statistics. This figurewas found that Maori and Pacific Islanders made up
is significant as a lot of the victims are young children60% of the offenders charged with physical abuse
and are influenced or threatened by theincluding that on children. Often Pacific Island
abuser. The 'dark figure' can never be fullyand Maori families are larger and financially strained
realised as "unless provided with assurances ofwhich puts great stress on the family. Their
confidentiality, freedom from prosecution orculture and beliefs differ greatly from others and
anonymity, offenders themselves are highly unlikelytherefore their methods of punishment towards their
to reveal the true nature and extent of theirchildren differ. However, they are often
behaviours" (Fisher,1994). Also the victimtargeted by statistics as they are regarded as high
may think this abusive behaviour as normal since it isrisk to police and other officials. Statistics are
what they have grown up with and therefore theybias towards these cultures and produce incorrect
don't see a reason to report it. The 'greyresults for domestic incidences, including child abuse,
figure' - those that are reported to officials but aretherefore culture can not be proven to have sole
not appropriately dealt with is, sadly, alsoresponsibility for the explanations for child
evident. Police or other sources may reportabuse.Â
the crime differently to what is actually occurring, forÂ
example a child that has been physically hit by theirFinally feminists theories exist in the case of child
abuser may just be brushed off as an act ofabuse. This theory targets males as being
discipline.the main contributor to serious offences including child
    Âabuse.  This perspective points out that
    Âwomen commit fewer crimes than men and those
    Âcrimes that they do commit are of a less serious
    Ânature. Feminists put females as a higher risk
    Âof becoming a victim of child abuse rather than a
    Âchild abuser. "Studies have suggested that
    Âaround 6-60% of women and 3-31% of men
    Âexperience sexual abuse as a child" (Module
    Â4,p55). It is most common, in sexual abuse
    Âcases that the offender is male and the victim is
    Âfemale. This goes against theories mentioned
    Âearlier that say child abuse is a learned behaviour and
"Favourite explanations put forward to explain childthat most children who are abused as children will
abuse are: single parenthood; women who choose tobecome abusers themselves as most abused children
live with violent men; the abuse industry; welfarehave been shown to be females. Feminist
benefits; and the child protection system" (Davis &theories point out that men are usually the parent
Read, 2003). These explanations can also bethat disciplines the family and has the control in the
covered in different perspectives, these being:family relationship as they are the dominant
biological and psychological explanations, social andsex. But feminist theories don't take into
cultural learning and feminist theories.account those crimes that are committed by
Âwomen. Child abuse is often committed by
Only a few studies explain the Biological explanationswomen as they are often the main caregiver to a
for violent behaviour. The studies that arechild and are often the solo parent in the broken
available have been criticised for ignoring otherhome situation. Every day stresses such as
theories and focussing on the simplicity of thefinancial strains, caring for a child with special needs,
Biological make-up of a person. Biologicaland inadequate parenting skills are put upon the
perspectives concentrate solely on the individual andfemale caregiver and can contribute to them
that "violent responses are actually inherent in allphysically and emotionally abusing their child.Â
humans and just need the right trigger to releaseWhile statistics often show the male as the abuser in
them" (Module 4, p12). Such studies outlinechild abuse, there have been many past reported
that a person is born with violent traits and thereforecases of severe child abuse committed by women
cannot control their violence towards anyone includingwhich shows that women are capable of child abuse
children. However this goes against otheras well. Again, statistics are bias towards
studies which outline that the offenders of childmen because often it is the cases against the men
abuse violence tended to have problems as a childthat are more often reported to officials.Â
themselves. (Farrington, 1989) mentioned this sayingÂ
that "violent offenders tend to be high onÂ
hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention deficit, tend to beAfter the theories as to why child abuse occurs
reckless and lacking concentration, lack empathy andthere is the act of violence itself. The act of
find it difficult to defer gratification" (Levi, 1999,violence can itself be broken into two categories,
p862).Âthese being instrumental and expressive violence.
ÂÂ
Also the personality of the perpetrator can be seenInstrumental Violence is a "means to attain some
as part of the Biological perspective. This isother objective that is more important than the
when the personality of an offender is considered tovictim's injuries" (Module 4, p9). Whether this
be abnormal. "Certain abnormal personalityother objective is for the perpetrator or for some
characteristics are said to be the cause of sociallyother person, for example "to impress peers, to
deviant behaviours, such as child abuse and neglect"control a victim" or to "increase feelings of self
(Jackson, Karlson & Tzeng,1991,p33). Two sorts ofworth" (Module 4, p9).  Expressive
personality types have been pointed out by suchviolence "occurs in response to anger inducing
studies. These are under-controlledsituations such as physical attacks or personal failure"
personality and over-controlled personality.Â(Module 4,p9), where the primary goal is to inflict
These types suggest different ends of the scaleharm. Child abuse cases have both these types of
outside the boundaries of what is considered aviolence present. They help to explain why a
normal personality. Briefly an under-controlledperson may abuse a child as the perpetrator may
personality is one that "responds with aggressionhave committed the act to boost their own ego with
whenever he is frustrated or provoked" (Module 4,control over another, that being the child, or they
p13) and an over-controlled personality is one thatmay have built up anger that they take out on the
builds the aggression up over time and eventuallychild.Â
when "there are sufficient cues to aggression.., anÂ
aggressive act should occur" (Module 4,p13).ÂÂ
ÂÂ
Studies such as the biological factors and theMany theories exist on the explanations for child
personality of an offender have tried to prove that aabuse. Each theory is critical of the next but
person may be born with the violent traits and theseno one theory exists where it is proven to be the
traits may help to contribute to child abusesole contributor to the explanations for child
offending. However, it can not be proven toabuse. Putting the theories mentioned above
be the sole factors for committing such offences astogether may help to explain reasons behind child
child abuse. Studies have not yet provenabuse but further studies need to be conducted to
violent offenders to be born with a certain geneunderstand the explanations for child abuse that
type and that they are destined to become anoccurs in our society. Every child abuser is
offender. An individual that has been classeddifferent with explanations for their abusing conflicting
into the two abnormal personality types may bewith other child abusers and also conflicting with the
more likely to resort to violence in certain situationstheories so far produced.